/LMAR=0/XLINE=3/FONT#0=NGB40/FONT#1=BDI40/FONT#2=MATH40/FONT#3=MATHX[PUB,PAT]

␈↓ ↓␈↓Epist. problems of AI

␈↓ ↓␈↓Epistemology and heuristics

␈↓ ↓␈↓First order logic as a language for stating facts

␈↓ ↓␈↓Epistemology is theory of knowledge

␈↓ ↓␈↓result formalism

␈↓ ↓␈↓My object is to establish the importance of separate
␈↓ ↓␈↓consideration of epistemological problems, identify
␈↓ ↓␈↓some of the problems, and show a little progress.

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ β'EPISTEMOLOGICAL ADEQUACY OF A FORMALISM


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE FACTS ARE EXPRESSIBLE IN THE FORMALISM

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ SPECIFIC FACTS AND GENERAL COMMON SENSE FACTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ "I SHOULD DO X" IS INFERABLE IF AND ONLY IF IT FOLLOWS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE LAST POINT MAY HAVE TO BE WEAKENED

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬;FIRST ORDER LOGIC


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ PREDICATE CALCULUS + FUNCTIONS, EQUALITY,
␈↓ ↓␈↓  CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS + ...

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THERE ARE MANY WAYS OF FORMALIZING THE SAME FACTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ PREDICATE CALCULUS AS PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE IS A
␈↓ ↓␈↓   SEPARATE ISSUE

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ FIRST ORDER LOGIC IS IN SOME SENSE SEMANTICALLY UNIVERSAL

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ INFORMATION IS MORE EASILY CREATED AND TRANSMITTED IN
␈↓ ↓␈↓  LOGICAL FORM

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ INFORMATION IS USED FASTEST IN HARDWARE OR PROGRAM FORM

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ INTERMEDIATE FORMS EXIST

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ β≠THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL PART OF AI (COGNOLOGY)


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT FACTS ABOUT THE WORLD ARE AVAILABLE TO AN OBSERVER

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT MODES OF REASONING LEAD TO CORRECT CONCLUSIONS AND
␈↓ ↓␈↓   USEFUL CONJECTURES

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE WORLD CONSTITUTES COMMON
␈↓ ↓␈↓   SENSE

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ απADVANTAGES OF SEPARATING EPISTEMOLOGY FROM HEURISTICS


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ MANY EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS ARE TASK INDEPENDENT

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ONE EPISTEMOLOGICAL FORMALISM CAN SUPPORT A VARIETY OF
␈↓ ↓␈↓   HEURISTIC APPROACHES

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ CONCENTRATING ON EPISTEMOLOGY MAKES SOLVING THE
␈↓ ↓␈↓   EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS MORE PROBABLE

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AI WORKERS CHOOSE EPISTEMOLOGICALLY TRIVIAL FORMALISMS, BUT
␈↓ ↓␈↓   MANY REAL PROBLEMS ARE EPISTEMOLOGICALLY NON-TRIVIAL

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ αyTHE SHORTEST PATH TO HUMAN LEVEL INTELLIGENCE
␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ αoPROBABLY INVOLVES SOLVING THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL
␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ εPROBLEMS


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ CONCURRENT EVENTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ KNOWLEDGE BELIEF AND DESIRES

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ LOCATION AND SHAPES OF OBJECTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ MATERIALS AND THE CONSTRUCTION AND DESTRUCTION OF OBJECTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT ARE THE SIMPLEST HYPOTHESES

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ βεEPISTEMOLOGY IN PHILOSOPHY AND IN COGNOLOGY


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ GENERAL PROBLEMS THE SAME

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT INFORMATION IS ACTUALLY AVAILABLE TO A GIVEN OBSERVER

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHERS HAVE USEFUL FORMALIZATON OF NECESSITY,
␈↓ ↓␈↓   KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF AND SOME FORMALIZATION OF ACTION

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AI REQUIREMENTS SHOULD HELP FOCUS THE PHILOSOPHY

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ∧≡INTERACTION WITH OTHER STRIVERS


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ CO-OPERATION AND COMPETITION

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ NEED IT KNOW THEIR GOALS OR ONLY STIMULUS-RESPONSE?

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ "IT WILL DO WHAT IT THINKS WILL ACHIEVE ITS GOALS"

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ DOES IT LIKE ME?  WHAT DOES IT THINK I WANT?

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ "HE WILL GIVE ME A GOOD GRADE IF I DO GOOD WORK"

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ∧7KNOWLEDGE ABOUT KNOWLEDGE


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE AIRLINE CLERK KNOWS THE SCHEDULE

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE TELEPHONE NUMBERS ARE IN THE BOOK

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHEN I GET TO LIMA, INFORMATION WILL BE AVAILABLE IN
␈↓ ↓␈↓   ENGLISH ABOUT WHERE TO TAKE MY NEXT PLANE

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ I DON'T KNOW WHETHER PRESIDENT CARTER IS SITTING OR
␈↓ ↓␈↓   STANDING, AND THINKING WON'T HELP

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ∧βCONCURRENT VS. SEQUENTIAL EVENTS


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AI WORK HAS BEEN BASED ON SEQUENTIAL EVENTS WITH DISCRETE TIME

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓  ␈↓↓s␈↓α'␈↓↓ = result(e,s)␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ HOW TO EXPRESS PARTIAL INFORMATION ABOUT CONCURRENT PROCESSES

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ PARALLEL PROGRAMS?  INDETERMINATE PARALLEL PROGRAMS?
␈↓ ↓␈↓   PETRI NETS?

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE EVENTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ∧/OBJECTS, MATERIALS AND SPACE


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT SHAPES OF OBJECTS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT A PERSON WHEN WE SEE ONLY PART OF
␈↓ ↓␈↓   HIS FRONT

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ WHAT DO WE KNOW WITH OUR EYES OPEN AND WITH OUR EYES CLOSED

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ HOW DO YOU KNOW A RAT CAN'T FIT THROUGH THAT HOLE?

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ A STATUE OF A WOMAN CAN BE CARVED FROM THAT ELEPHANT TUSK

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ∧YOBJECTS AND APPEARANCES


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ A DOG IS ONE THING

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AN APPEARANCE OF A DOG IS ANOTHER

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AI NEEDS BOTH AND THEIR RELATIONS

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THREE DIMENSIONAL PATTERNS "PROJECT" INTO TWO
␈↓ ↓␈↓   DIMENSIONAL PATTERNS

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬	CAUSALITY AND ABILITY


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE CAUSE OF THE BROKEN WINDOW WAS THE STONE THROWN
␈↓ ↓␈↓   THROUGH IT

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ A COW CAN'T JUMP OVER THE MOON (PHYSICAL)

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ A COW CAN'T BREAK THE ELECTRIC FENCE BY PUSHING A LOG
␈↓ ↓␈↓   AGAINST IT (INTELLECTUAL)

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬OFRAME PROBLEM


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ HOW TO STATE WHAT REMAINS UNCHANGED BY AN ACTION

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ IF THERE ARE ␈↓↓m␈↓ OBJECTS AND ␈↓↓n␈↓ ACTIONS, ␈↓↓mn␈↓ SENTENCES ARE
␈↓ ↓␈↓   REQUIRED WITHOUT FRAMES AND ONLY ␈↓↓n␈↓ WITH FRAMES.  BUT WHAT
␈↓ ↓␈↓   GOES WITH WHAT FRAME?

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ AS A TECHNICAL DEVICE, FRAMES WORK, BUT DON'T SEEM TO
␈↓ ↓␈↓   CORRESPOND TO HUMAN THOUGHT.

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓  ␈↓↓∀x l s.(at(x,l,result(go(x,l),s))
␈↓ ↓␈↓↓      ∧ ∀y l␈↓α'␈↓↓. (y≠x ⊃ at(y,l␈↓α'␈↓↓,result(go(x,l),s)) ≡ at(y,l␈↓α'␈↓↓,s)))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ MINSKY SWIPED THE NAME FOR SOMETHING QUITE DIFFERENT

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬∃ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS



␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ FRAME PROBLEM - HOW TO STATE WHAT REMAINS UNCHANGED
␈↓ ↓␈↓   AFTER AN EVENT

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ QUALIFICATION PROBLEM - HOW TO STATE THAT "OTHER THINGS
␈↓ ↓␈↓   BEING EQUAL, A BOAT CAN BE USED TO CROSS A RIVER"

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬ICIRCUMSCRIPTION


␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ THE ␈↓↓P␈↓'S THAT MUST EXIST ARE ALL THE ␈↓↓P␈↓'S THERE ARE

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓a, b, ␈↓AND ␈↓↓c ␈↓ARE ␈↓↓P␈↓'s

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓f(x) ␈↓AND ␈↓↓g(x,y) ␈↓TAKE ␈↓↓P␈↓'S INTO ␈↓↓P␈↓'S

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓P(a) ∧ P(b) ∧ P(c) ∧ (∀x)(P(x) ⊃ P(f(x))) ∧ (∀x y)(P(x)
␈↓ ↓␈↓↓   ∧ P(y) ⊃ P(g(x,y)))

␈↓ ↓␈↓↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓↓ qF(a) ∧ qF(b) ∧ qF(c) ∧ (∀x)(qF(x) ⊃ qF(f(x)))
␈↓ ↓␈↓↓   ∧ (∀x y)(qF(x) ∧ qF(y) ⊃ qF(g(x,y))) ⊃ (∀x)(qF(x) ⊃ P(x))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓␈↓ ¬⊃CONCEPTS AS OBJECTS


␈↓ ↓␈↓ @ ␈↓↓combination(safe1) = "35-27-45"␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓combination(safe2) = "35-27-45"␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ @ ␈↓↓*knows(pat,combination(safe1))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ @ ␈↓↓*knows(pat,combination(safe2))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓knows(pat,Combination(Safe1))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓denotation(Safe1) = safe1␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ @ ␈↓↓denotes(Safe1,safe1)␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓(∀X)(denotation Combination X = combination denotation x)␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓true Know(Pat, Combination Safe1)␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ @ ␈↓↓true K(Mike,Know(Pat,Combination Safe1))␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓true P ∧ true Q ≡ true(P and Q)␈↓

␈↓ ↓␈↓ ␈↓β⊗␈↓ ␈↓↓P and Q =? Q and P␈↓